Adapted into Modern English from Dr. Herbert Samworth
The history of the English Bible after the publication of the King James Version (KJV) is very different from the dramatic story that came before it. Earlier generations witnessed courageous translators, printers, and publishers who risked imprisonment, persecution, and even death to give the English-speaking world the Scriptures in their own language.
Although the years following the King James Version were less dramatic, they remain extremely important. During this period, scholars continued the work of preserving, studying, and translating the biblical text so that future generations could have increasingly accurate and understandable Bibles.
When William Tyndale translated the New Testament into English, he had access to only one printed Greek New Testament. This edition had been compiled by Desiderius Erasmus and printed by Johannes Froben in the early sixteenth century.
This Greek text later became known as the Textus Receptus ("Received Text"). For more than 350 years it served as the standard Greek text for the New Testament and became the textual foundation for the King James Version.
That changed in 1881, when Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort published a new critical edition of the Greek New Testament based on a much larger collection of ancient manuscripts.
To understand the development of modern English Bible translations, we must examine two closely related subjects:
the history of the Greek New Testament text from Erasmus to the present day; and
the history of modern English translations that are based on later critical editions of the Greek text.
We begin with the transmission of the Greek New Testament.
In 1516, the printer Johannes Froben asked Erasmus to prepare a Greek New Testament for publication.
Erasmus likely expected to compare many Greek manuscripts before completing his work. Instead, he found only five manuscripts, and the oldest dated from around the tenth century.
Because Froben wanted the book published quickly, Erasmus worked under considerable pressure. He later admitted that his first edition had been produced hastily, describing it as "thrown together rather than carefully edited."
Erasmus continued improving his work, publishing revised editions in 1519, 1522, 1527, and 1535.
After Erasmus died, other scholars continued revising and printing Greek New Testaments within the same textual tradition.
Among the most influential editors were Robert Stephanus (Estienne) in Paris and Geneva and later the Elzevir brothers in Leiden.
In the introduction to the second Elzevir edition, the publishers claimed that readers now possessed:
"the text now received by all."
From this promotional statement came the famous name Textus Receptus, meaning "Received Text."
Over time, scholars began questioning whether the Textus Receptus represented the most accurate form of the New Testament.
Several concerns were raised:
Erasmus had used only a handful of relatively late manuscripts.
His manuscripts were much younger than many ancient copies discovered later.
He lacked Greek manuscript evidence for the final six verses of Revelation, forcing him to reconstruct part of the text from other sources.
Because Erasmus himself had selected what he believed were the best readings from the manuscripts available to him, later scholars argued that they should likewise revise the Greek text whenever older and more reliable manuscripts became available.
That is exactly what happened.
As interest in the Bible grew, scholars devoted increasing effort to studying ancient manuscripts and developing the science of textual criticism.
Over time, many previously unknown Greek manuscripts were discovered. Among the most significant were uncial manuscripts—copies written in large capital letters—some dating back as early as the fourth century A.D. One of the most famous examples is the Codex Sinaiticus.
These ancient manuscripts often contained readings that differed from those found in the Textus Receptus.
In addition to uncial manuscripts, many minuscule manuscripts, written in smaller cursive script, were also discovered. As the number of available manuscripts increased dramatically, editors of the Greek New Testament carefully compared these witnesses in an effort to produce a text that more closely reflected the original writings of the apostles.
Adapted into Modern English from Dr. Herbert Samworth
One of the major developments after the publication of the Textus Receptus was the growth of textual criticism. Although the subject can seem technical, its purpose is straightforward: to determine, as accurately as possible, the original wording of the biblical text.
The original manuscripts of the books of the Bible, known as the autographs, no longer exist. What we possess today are thousands of handwritten copies made over many centuries.
Because these manuscripts were copied by hand, small differences naturally appeared between them. These differences are called textual variants. Most are very minor, involving spelling, word order, or similar small details, and they rarely affect the meaning of the passage.
The goal of textual criticism is to compare all the available manuscript evidence and determine which reading most likely reflects the original text written by the biblical authors.
Textual critics follow a number of established principles when comparing manuscripts. These principles are not rigid rules but guidelines that must be applied carefully.
For example:
1. The shorter reading is often preferred.
Copyists were generally more likely to add explanatory words than to remove them. A later scribe might include an extra phrase to clarify a difficult passage, making the text slightly longer.
2. The more difficult reading is often preferred.
Scribes sometimes simplified difficult expressions to make them easier for readers to understand. Therefore, the more challenging reading may actually preserve the original wording.
These are only two of many principles used by textual scholars. No single rule determines the correct reading. Instead, scholars carefully weigh all the manuscript evidence before reaching a conclusion.
Following the publication of the Textus Receptus, the number of known Greek manuscripts increased dramatically.
Many newly discovered manuscripts contained readings that had been unknown to Erasmus because they were not available in his day. As more evidence became available, scholars continued refining the Greek New Testament in an effort to reproduce the original text more accurately.
At the same time, the discipline of textual criticism itself became more systematic and rigorous, giving editors better tools for evaluating competing manuscript readings.
In 1881, Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort published a new critical edition of the Greek New Testament.
Their edition incorporated the evidence from many ancient manuscripts that had been discovered since the days of Erasmus. As a result, their text differed from the Textus Receptus in numerous places.
Most of these differences were relatively minor. However, a few attracted significant attention.
Among the most notable were:
the long ending of Mark (Mark 16:9–20), which Westcott and Hort questioned as part of the original Gospel; and
the account of the woman caught in adultery (John 7:53–8:11), which they believed had likely been added to the Gospel at a later time.
These conclusions remain subjects of discussion among biblical scholars today.
The publication of the Westcott-Hort Greek New Testament marked a major turning point in Bible scholarship.
For many scholars, it replaced the Textus Receptus as the standard Greek text for New Testament study and translation.
Around the same time, a new English Bible was published—the Revised Version (RV) of 1881. This translation used the Westcott-Hort Greek text as its foundation.
The translation was prepared by a committee of scholars from both Great Britain and the United States.
Although the American scholars disagreed with some of the British translators' wording, they agreed not to publish their own preferred renderings for twenty years.
In 1901, those American preferences were finally published as the American Standard Version (ASV).
The ASV became highly respected for its careful attention to the original languages and exercised a strong influence on many later English Bible translations.
Biblical scholarship did not stop in the nineteenth century.
During the twentieth century, archaeologists discovered many additional Greek papyrus manuscripts in Egypt. Because these papyri are often much older than previously known manuscripts, they have provided valuable evidence for reconstructing the New Testament text.
Another major discovery came in 1947 with the finding of the Dead Sea Scrolls near Qumran, along the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea.
These ancient Hebrew manuscripts greatly expanded scholars' knowledge of the Old Testament text.
In several places, the Dead Sea Scrolls preserve readings that differ from the traditional Masoretic Text, which had long served as the standard Hebrew text of the Old Testament. Many modern Bible translations consider these readings where they appear to clarify difficult passages.
Today, scholars have access to thousands of Hebrew and Greek manuscripts, far more than were available to Erasmus or the translators of the King James Version.
By carefully comparing this wealth of evidence, they seek to establish the most accurate text possible.
Even so, discussion continues over certain passages where manuscript evidence differs. While scholars often disagree about which reading is preferable, the vast majority of the biblical text is remarkably well established.
The continuing work of textual criticism reflects the desire to preserve God's Word as faithfully as possible by making use of all the manuscript evidence available.
Adapted into Modern English from Dr. Herbert Samworth
Establishing the most accurate Hebrew and Greek text of Scripture is only the first step. The next challenge is translating that text into another language so that people can read and understand God's Word.
This work continues around the world today. In some places, translators are producing the first Bible ever available in a people's native language. In countries like England and the United States, where the Bible has existed in the common language for centuries, translators continue revising existing versions to reflect advances in biblical scholarship and changes in the English language.
As languages change over time, Bible translations must also be updated so that each generation can clearly understand the message of Scripture.
Bible translation is a serious responsibility.
A faithful translator must accomplish two important goals:
Remain true to the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek text.
Communicate that meaning clearly and naturally in the target language.
This task involves much more than replacing one word with another.
Languages differ in grammar, sentence structure, idioms, and ways of expressing ideas. Therefore, translators must carefully convey not only the individual words but also the intended meaning of each passage.
Bible translators generally follow one of two major translation philosophies.
Formal equivalence, sometimes called verbal equivalence, seeks to translate each word of the original language with the closest corresponding word in the target language whenever possible.
The goal is to stay as close as possible to the wording and structure of the original text.
This approach often produces a very accurate and precise translation, making it especially valuable for careful Bible study.
However, because Hebrew and Greek sentence structures differ significantly from English, formal translations can sometimes sound stiff or difficult to read.
Dynamic equivalence, also known as functional equivalence, focuses on communicating the meaning of the original text rather than reproducing each individual word.
Instead of asking,
"What English word matches this Greek or Hebrew word?"
the translator asks,
"How would the original audience have understood this expression, and how can I communicate that same meaning to modern readers?"
This approach often produces smoother, more natural English and can make Scripture easier to understand.
However, because it gives translators greater freedom to interpret the text, critics argue that it sometimes reflects the translator's understanding rather than simply translating the original words.
The difference between these two methods can be illustrated by the biblical use of the word "blood."
Throughout Scripture, blood is closely connected with sacrifice and the forgiveness of sins. The shedding of blood represents the death of the sacrificial victim.
A translator using formal equivalence will usually translate the original word simply as "blood," preserving the exact wording of the text.
A translator using dynamic equivalence may occasionally translate the idea as "death," believing that this better communicates what the original readers understood by the expression.
Both translators aim to communicate the same truth, but they differ in how directly they reproduce the original wording.
A third approach is paraphrasing.
Unlike a translation, which seeks to render the original words into another language, a paraphrase restates the ideas of Scripture in fresh, contemporary language.
Paraphrases often use modern idioms and expressions to make the Bible easier to understand, especially for readers unfamiliar with biblical language.
Because paraphrases emphasize communicating ideas rather than preserving the wording of the original text, they are generally easier to read.
However, they have also been criticized for allowing too much interpretive freedom. Critics argue that paraphrases sometimes go beyond translation and include the author's own explanations of the text.
Supporters respond that paraphrases can help readers who might otherwise struggle to understand more literal translations.
Each translation philosophy has strengths and weaknesses.
Formal equivalence emphasizes precision and close adherence to the original wording.
Dynamic equivalence emphasizes clarity and readability while seeking to communicate the original meaning.
Paraphrases emphasize ease of understanding but should generally be used alongside a good translation rather than as a substitute for one.
The best translation for a particular reader depends on the purpose. A literal translation may be preferable for in-depth Bible study, while a more readable translation may be helpful for devotional reading or for someone who is reading the Bible for the first time.
Regardless of the method used, every faithful translator shares the same goal: to communicate God's Word accurately and clearly so that people can hear and understand the message of Scripture.
Adapted into Modern English from Dr. Herbert Samworth
As new manuscript discoveries were made and biblical scholarship advanced, the twentieth century witnessed an unprecedented number of English Bible translations. It would be impossible to discuss every version in detail, but several have had a particularly significant influence on the English-speaking church.
The King James Version, first published in 1611, remains one of the most beloved and influential English Bibles ever produced.
Many Christians appreciate its majestic literary style, historical importance, and faithful translation. However, it has also been criticized for two primary reasons:
Its seventeenth-century English contains many words and expressions that are no longer commonly used.
It is based primarily on the Textus Receptus, rather than later critical editions of the Greek New Testament that incorporate thousands of additional manuscripts discovered after 1611.
Despite these criticisms, the King James Version continues to be widely read and treasured by many believers around the world.
The New King James Version was produced to preserve the beauty and dignity of the King James Bible while updating its language into modern English.
The translators retained the Textus Receptus as the New Testament's textual foundation but replaced obsolete words and grammatical forms with language more easily understood by contemporary readers.
As a result, the NKJV serves as a bridge between the traditional King James Version and modern English.
The New American Standard Bible is an example of a translation that follows the formal equivalence (word-for-word) approach.
It is a revision of the American Standard Version (1901) and is widely respected for its careful attention to the Hebrew and Greek text.
Many pastors, teachers, and serious Bible students value the NASB because of its precision and consistency.
At the same time, some readers find its English style somewhat formal or less natural than other modern translations.
The New International Version is one of the world's most widely used English Bibles.
Its translators generally followed a dynamic equivalence (thought-for-thought) philosophy, seeking to communicate the meaning of Scripture in clear, contemporary English.
The NIV has been praised for its readability and usefulness in both public reading and private devotion.
Some critics, however, believe that its emphasis on readability occasionally sacrifices the precision of a more literal translation.
In 1937, the International Council of Religious Education appointed a committee to revise the American Standard Version in light of advances in biblical scholarship.
The result was the Revised Standard Version, published in stages:
New Testament (1946)
Old Testament (1952)
Apocrypha (1957)
The RSV retained much of the literary style of the King James Version while updating its language and incorporating newer manuscript evidence.
In 1990, the Revised Standard Version was updated again.
The New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) reflected further advances in textual scholarship, modern English usage, and the use of gender-inclusive language where the translators believed it accurately represented the original meaning.
The NRSV has been widely accepted in many academic institutions and churches from various Christian traditions.
At the same time, some conservative Christians have criticized certain translation choices, particularly the rendering of Isaiah 7:14, where the NRSV translates the Hebrew term as "young woman" rather than "virgin." Critics argue that this weakens the prophetic connection to Christ's virgin birth described in Matthew 1:23.
The Message, translated by Eugene Peterson, is not a traditional translation but a paraphrase.
Its goal is to communicate the ideas of Scripture in vivid, conversational English using modern idioms.
Many readers appreciate its freshness and accessibility, especially for devotional reading.
Others believe it departs too far from the wording of the biblical text and therefore should not be used as one's primary study Bible.
During the 1960s, Kenneth Taylor began paraphrasing portions of Scripture to help his children understand the Bible more easily.
These paraphrases were eventually published in 1971 as The Living Bible.
The Living Bible became enormously popular among evangelical Christians because of its simple, readable style.
Nevertheless, it also received criticism from scholars who believed that, as a paraphrase, it occasionally reflected the author's interpretation more than the precise wording of Scripture.
In 1996, a team of approximately seventy evangelical scholars thoroughly revised The Living Bible.
Rather than simply updating the earlier paraphrase, they produced a fresh translation based directly on the Hebrew and Greek texts.
The result was the New Living Translation (NLT).
Although it follows a dynamic equivalence approach, it is generally regarded as a genuine translation rather than merely a paraphrase.
Its clear, natural English has made it especially popular for devotional reading, evangelism, and introducing new believers to the Bible.
Published in 2001, the English Standard Version (ESV) is a revision of the Revised Standard Version (RSV). Its translators sought to combine the literary beauty of the King James tradition with the accuracy of modern biblical scholarship.
The ESV follows an "essentially literal" or formal equivalence approach to translation. It aims to translate the words and grammar of the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek as faithfully as possible while producing clear, natural English.
Because of its balance between accuracy and readability, the ESV has become one of the most widely used English Bibles among evangelical Christians. It is commonly used for expository preaching, personal study, and public worship.
The ESV is based on the standard critical editions of the Hebrew and Greek biblical texts rather than the Textus Receptus. Its translators have sought to preserve important theological terms and maintain consistency where possible, making it especially popular among pastors, scholars, and serious students of Scripture.
Christian Standard Bible (CSB) (2017) – an "optimal equivalence" translation that seeks a balance between word-for-word accuracy and readability.
Legacy Standard Bible (LSB) (2021) – a revision of the NASB emphasizing consistency in translating the divine name and key theological terms.
These versions have become increasingly influential in conservative evangelical circles alongside the KJV, NKJV, NASB, ESV, and NIV.
Modern publishers also produce many special-interest Bibles.
These editions usually use an existing Bible translation but include study notes, articles, devotionals, or reading plans designed for specific audiences or ministries.
Examples include Bibles prepared for:
people recovering from addiction,
discipleship and spiritual growth,
men's or women's ministries,
youth and children,
military personnel,
pastors,
and many other groups.
The translation itself may remain unchanged, while the additional material addresses the particular needs or interests of the intended readers.
As we conclude this survey, two important truths deserve our gratitude.
First, we should thank God that we possess the Scriptures in our own language. Millions of people throughout history have never had the privilege of reading God's Word in their native tongue.
Second, we should be grateful for the many faithful men and women whom God has used to preserve, translate, and distribute the Bible.
Some, such as William Wycliffe and William Tyndale, paid a tremendous personal price to make the Scriptures available to ordinary people. Others labored quietly in universities, libraries, and translation committees, carefully comparing manuscripts and refining translations so that each generation could read the Bible with greater clarity and accuracy.
Though their methods and conclusions have sometimes differed, their shared goal has been to make God's Word faithfully available to His people.
The history of the English Bible reminds us that the work of preserving and translating Scripture has been a long and remarkable journey. It should deepen our appreciation not only for the Bible itself but also for the faithful servants through whom God has preserved His Word from generation to generation.
"The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever." — Isaiah 40:8